Roman (Roh-muhn)
753 BCE - 476 CE
The Roman civilization, spanning over a millennium, was one of the most influential cultures in history. Originating from the city of Rome, this civilization expanded to dominate much of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Known for their advancements in law, engineering, and military strategy, the Romans left a lasting legacy that continues to shape modern society. Their culture was characterized by a complex social structure, diverse religious practices, and remarkable achievements in art, architecture, and literature.
Culture
Major language groups and dialects
The primary language of the Romans was Latin, which evolved into the Romance languages spoken today, such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. Latin was the language of government, literature, and scholarly work, while various dialects and languages were spoken in the vast territories of the Roman Empire.
Culture and cultural heritage
Roman culture was a blend of Etruscan, Greek, and indigenous Italic traditions. The Romans valued law and order, and their legal system became the foundation for many modern legal codes. Roman literature, philosophy, and history were heavily influenced by Greek predecessors, but they also made significant contributions of their own. Public entertainment, such as gladiatorial games and theater, played a central role in Roman life.
Shared customary codes and values
Roman society valued virtues such as discipline, loyalty, and piety (known as *pietas*). The concept of *gravitas* (seriousness) and *virtus* (manliness and valor) were central to their identity. Family was the cornerstone of Roman society, with the *paterfamilias* (male head of the household) holding considerable authority over the family.
Common Etiquette rules
Roman etiquette emphasized respect for social hierarchies and proper conduct in public and private life. Guests were expected to show respect to their hosts, and formal greetings and farewells were important. Public behavior was guided by a sense of decorum and propriety, especially in the presence of superiors.
Common Dress code
Romans wore tunics, with the length and style indicating social status. Men of higher status wore togas, a large draped garment, while women wore stolas. Clothing was often made of wool or linen, and wealthier individuals adorned themselves with jewelry and colorful dyes.
Art & Architecture
Roman architecture was characterized by the use of arches, vaults, and concrete, leading to the construction of monumental structures such as the Colosseum, aqueducts, and public baths. Art included realistic sculpture, intricate mosaics, and frescoes that decorated homes and public buildings. Roman art often depicted gods, historical events, and everyday life.
Foods & Cuisine
The Roman diet was based on grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes, with meat and fish being more common among the wealthy. Meals were social events, often featuring multiple courses. Common dishes included bread, olives, cheese, and wine. Exotic spices and ingredients from across the empire enriched their cuisine.
Common Customs, traditions and rituals
Romans celebrated numerous festivals and religious ceremonies, honoring their pantheon of gods and goddesses. Public rituals, sacrifices, and feasts were common, especially during important state festivals such as Saturnalia. Private rituals included household worship of the *Lares* and *Penates* (household gods).
Coming of Age Rites
Coming of age for Roman boys involved the *toga virilis* ceremony, where they donned the adult toga and registered as citizens. This typically occurred around the age of 16. Girls celebrated their transition to adulthood through marriage, often in their early teens, accompanied by a formal ceremony and dowry.
Funerary and Memorial customs
Romans practiced both cremation and inhumation (burial), with elaborate funerary rites to honor the deceased. Wealthy families constructed grand tombs and monuments, while common people were often buried in communal cemeteries. Ancestral worship and the veneration of the dead were important aspects of Roman religion.
Common Taboos
Taboos in Roman society included disrespecting the gods, violating sacred spaces, and breaking social contracts such as hospitality and loyalty to the state. Certain actions, like incest and cowardice in battle, were severely condemned.
Common Myths and Legends
Roman mythology was rich with tales of gods, heroes, and the founding of Rome. Key figures included Jupiter (king of the gods), Mars (god of war), and Venus (goddess of love). Legends such as the story of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, and the adventures of Aeneas were central to their cultural identity.
Historical figures
Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Cicero are among the most renowned historical figures. Caesar's military conquests and political reforms, Augustus' establishment of the Roman Empire, and Cicero's contributions to philosophy and rhetoric highlight the diverse impact of Roman leaders.
Ideals
Beauty Ideals
Romans admired physical fitness and symmetrical features. Both men and women used cosmetics and hair treatments to enhance their appearance. Statues and portraits often idealized their subjects, reflecting societal standards of beauty.
Gender Ideals
Men were expected to be active in public life, serving in the military or government. Women were primarily involved in managing households and raising children, although some, like Livia Drusilla, wielded significant influence behind the scenes. Women of higher status had more freedom to engage in social and cultural activities.
Courtship Ideals
Marriages were often arranged for political or economic reasons. Courtship involved formal negotiations between families, with the exchange of gifts and dowries. Romantic love was idealized in literature but was less central to marital arrangements.
Relationship Ideals
Marital relationships were expected to be partnerships that contributed to family stability and social status. Fidelity, especially for women, was highly valued, and divorce, while legal, was relatively uncommon. Family loyalty and the production of heirs were primary marital goals.
