Abenaki
The People of the Dawn Lands
The Abenaki (lit. "People of the Dawn Land") are one of two Native American Tribes of the First Nations that have settled Eydraumr, the other being the Mi'kmaq. They are one of five members of the Wabanaki Confederacy, which is composed of four Eastern Algonquin Nations: The Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot. The Western Abenaki - composed of the Pennacook, Sokoki, Cowasuck, Missisquoi, Arsigantegok, and other peoples - are culturally distinct from the Eastern Abanaki within the Wabanaki Confederacy. The term Abenaki, without a qualifier, typically refers to the Eastern Abenaki within the Wabanaki Confederacy. Abenaki refer to themselves in the broader sense as Alnôbak (lit. "real people"), and generally refer to themselves as Alnanbal (lit. "men").
The term Abenaki is more of a linguistic and geographic grouping than a historically homogeneous ethnicity, and the title has been used to refer to any of the Algonquin-speaking tribes in the North-Eastern Americas. Historically, the Abenaki were composed of numerous smaller families, bands, and tribes that shared cultural traits. As the First Nations became decimated through disease, war, and consequences of colonization, these smaller groups united into the Abenaki of modern-day.
The Abenaki refer to their homelands as Ndakinna (lit. "our land"). The vast majority of the Abenaki extended across most of what is now northern New England, southern Quebec, and the southern Canadian Maritimes with the White Mountains of New Hampshire forming the division between Eastern and Western Abenaki groups. The English colonization of New England, and the consequences of forced colonization, forced many Abenaki to flee into Quebec, where they subsequently found the French settlers to be more welcoming. During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki sided with the French; as the English had driven them from Ndakinna, the Abenaki hoped to reclaim their lands in a French victory.
Currently, there are two primary Abenaki tribal communities in Canada and no reservations in the United States as the Abenaki are not federally recognized. In December of 2012, Vermont's Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe was able to create a tribal forest with a hunting camp and maple sugaring factories with the help of the Vermont Sierra Club and the Vermont Land Trust. However, the vast majority of Ndakinna has been lost to colonization. The majority of Abenaki today are off-reservation, living in the various cities and towns of Canada and the United States, with varying levels of tribal involvement.
Abenaki traditionally have patrilineal descent, with each man inheriting hunting territories from his father. Extended families lived together in scattered bands, allying into villages that rarely numbered over one hundred. Wigwams were traditional dome-shaped, bark-covered structures lined with bear and deer skins for warmth, though oval long-houses were not an unusual practice. During the harsh winters, the villages would gather into shared structures further inland. The main village would have high-log palisades, especially if the village had received hostilities.
Storytelling is a key part of Abenaki life and Abenaki Spirituality, as the Abenaki believe that stories have lives of their own and are aware of how they are used. Stories are the primary means of instructing children; rather than punishing or mistreating a child, they would be told stories as lessons. Stories are also used for bonding and entertainment, with respect for the life of the story.
Traditionally, Abenaki wore deerskin or other leathers as outwear, with softer cloth underclothing. Both men and women could go without a shirt, though due to the colder climate most wore loose blouses. Women typically wore lighter leather skirts, with men wearing thicker leather leggings. Both sexes could wear cloaks, beaded jewelry, mocassins, and the hallmark pointed hood.
Abenaki did wear feathers, though it was typically limited to a headdress with one or two feathers. Chiefs would have a large feathered headdress, though the feathers were stacked, unlike the long warbonnets of the Sioux. Feathers are traditionally only worn for special occasions or war. Face-painting is not part of Abenaki culture.
Women would traditionally wear their hair loose or braided on top of their head, and men would either have their hair long or in top-knots. In modern times, many additional clothing and hairstyles have been embraced into Abenaki culture.
Lands:
Wabanaki Confederacy by Stacy Morin
Economy and Trade:
The Abenaki, like several First Nations tribes, practiced a subsistence economy based on agriculture, hunting, fishing, trapping, and foraging. The practice of basket weaving and the production of maple syrup are traditional arts. Where things were peaceful, the Abenaki readily traded with English and French settlers in exchange for goods they could not make themselves. The Abenaki were notable participants in the trade of furs, lumber, and basketry and quickly adapted to the new global economy. The Abenaki were well-known for their birchbark canoes, as well as their use of dogs as an integral part of tribal life. Dogs were the traditional pack animals, as horses were not available until the colonists brought them from Europe. The Abenaki's relationship with the Cree to the North gave them sleds and snowshoes for travel in the harsh winter months, with dogs pulling sleds as necessary. Jesuit missionaries throughout France described the Abenaki as docile, clever, temperate, and respectful. Notably, the Abenaki were also described as being opposed to cannibalism, which Christian settlers typically believed all First Nations peoples to practice. The Abenaki frequently practiced agriculture, using foraging, fishing, and hunting to supplement their diets throughout the year. Abenaki weaponry demonstrates their reliance on hunting and fishing. Their primary weapons are spears and nets, common fishing implements. The hunters and warriors primarily utilized bows with arrows or heavy wooden clubs, if they did not use the fishing spears.
Language:
As an Eastern Algonquian language, it shares many similarities to Pestomuhkati of the Passamaquoddy, Wolastoqiyik of the Maliseet, and Mi'kmaq, but is most closely related to Panaqahpskek of the Penobscot. The greatest efforts to revive Abenaki are being spearheaded by the tribal members at Odanak, a First Nations Abenaki reserve in Quebec, but efforts extend throughout Ndakinna.
Daily Life:
Abenaki Birch-Covered Wigwam by National Park Service
Leadership and Divisions:
Abenaki families would come together as a tribe to make communal decisions, with each extended family electing a single representative or sending their decision to an impartial facilitator to give all families an equal say. In all discussions, there was an emphasis on consensus and total understanding of all group members - if there was a lack of understanding, the debate would not progress forward until an understanding was reached. When debate would come to the tribe, it would be tested with the three truths: Peace, Righteousness, and Power - does the proposal preserve peace, preserve group integrity, and uphold their moral values? The ultimate goal is consensus, but if no consensus is reached, the understanding is no change will be made and the current status quo will be maintained. All Abenaki take part in the storytelling and decision making of the tribe and held roles of spiritual and religious importance, such as Elder and Shaman. Generally, men would go hunting and gathering while women would tend to fields, tended to children, and cooked. Traditionally, a Chief (sagama in Abenaki) was always male, but women have been taking the role more often in modern-day.
Clothing:
Abenaki Couple by Unknown
Modernized traditional/spiritual hairstyle for married Abenaki Man
Eydraumr:
The Abenaki are the most predominant First Nations peoples to still have settlements on Eydraumr. The most predominant sub-groups present in Eydraumr are the Passamaquoddy (which have otherwise settled the Passamaquoddy Bay region, and were recently recognized by the US government as a separate tribe), the Kennebec (Kennebec bay region), and the Androscoggin (Androscoggin bay region). Both men and women take leadership roles within the Abenaki of Eydraumr, though men still have a greater foothold and descent remains patrilineal. Though Eydraumr is technically part of the United States, the Abenaki maintain that the island is a separate entity, and have strained ties with mainland Abenaki groups. The Abenaki have an understanding with the Mi'kmaq within Eydraumr. While on the mainland they could both be said to be Abenaki, the Mi'kmaq of Eydraumr are considered an entirely separate tribe from the Abenaki. The tribes have agreed not to infringe on each other's lands, but the sharing of resources and information is limited and at times strained.Sources:
- Lee Sultzman (July 21, 1997). "Abenaki History". Archived from the original on 11 April 2010. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
- "Nulhegan Abenaki attain first tribal forestland in more than 200 years". VTDigger. 2012-12-18. Retrieved 2018-11-15.
- Waldman, Carl. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes: Third Edition (New York: Checkmark Books, 2006) p. 1
- "Abenaki". U*X*L Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. 2008. Archived from the original on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2012-08-14 – via HighBeam Research.
- Snow, Dean R. 1978. "Eastern Abenaki". In Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 137. Cited in Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 401. Campbell uses the spelling wabánahki.
- Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed. (1900). Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610—1791. The Burrows Company. Archived from the original on 2006-09-07. Retrieved 2006-11-07.
- https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/abenaki#:~:text=Creation%20Stories&text=In%20some%20Abenaki%20tales%2C%20there,and%20clouds%20above%20his%20head.
- "The Consensual Decision-Making Process". Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook-Abenaki People. Archived from the original on August 8, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
- http://www.bigorrin.org/abenaki_kids.htm
- Joe Bruchac. "The Abenaki Perspective on Storytelling". Abenaki Nation. Archived from the original on 10 February 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
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