The Manticore

It is said to be a horrible beast, the terror of every region it inhabited--a biological amalgamation with the tail of a scorpion, dripping with venom, the body of a massive lion, and a face eerily mirroring its preferred prey: humans.
Any who found themselves stalked by this vicious beast had little hope of escape--the creature was fast, powerful, and merciless--within moments, one could be consumed by a jaw filled with multiple rows of teeth.
The manticore, as it is known, has been cataloged in texts dating back thousands of years--and yet, in the modern era, it has been entirely dismissed as a fanciful fiction.
But as has proved to be the case with so many legends, is it possible that a grain of truth exists within?

 As my team and I would discover, quite unexpectedly in this case, the line between myth and reality can be hauntingly thin.

The Mantichora

The first written accounts of the manticore can be traced back to the Achaemenid dynasty, when Greek physician Ctesias described the manticore as a creature of formidable power, blending the ferocity of a lion with the cunning of a human and the venomous tail of a scorpion.
He depicted it with three rows of sharp teeth set in a human-like face, with a robust and lion-like body and covered in fur the color of cinnabar.
Ctesias also claimed to have personally observed one of these creatures in captivity, brought from India and presented as a gift to the king of Persia.
Centuries later, Roman writer Pliny the Elder, in his "Natural History," echoed Ctesias' description. He chronicled the manticore as having a scorpion's tail surrounded by spikes, which it was capable of launching at its adversaries with deadly accuracy.
The manticore's diet was of particular significance in nearly every description: Ctesias claimed that the creature took “special delight in gorging human flesh, [which] its very name testifies, for in the Greek language it means man-eater, and its name is derived from its activities.”
In the time since the 17th century, however, accounts of the manticore dwindled, and to my knowledge, did not again appear in texts as anything other than a myth.
Needless to say, the era of scientific enlightenment dispelled numerous accounts many perceived to be mere fabrications, and the manticore was one such casualty--relegated to a fanciful past.
I have to admit that I had no reason to believe otherwise.
That is, until recently.

The Investigation

This particular journey began in a somewhat unusual way--my team and I were dispatched, as usual, but this time, it appeared to have been in direct response to a written request, originating from an undisclosed location in India.

 My employer is not in the habit of granting unsolicited invitations, and I was not alone in thinking this case to be suspect.
Even upon reaching our destination, the circumstances remained unprecedented--I had little idea what to expect even from the beginning.


We did not conduct an investigation--instead, we were ushered to a massive estate, nestled deep within a remote, forested region of India. Upon reaching the estate, we were struck by its beauty--the exterior facade heavy with the weight of generations of history.
But as we would eventually discover, the greatest secrets lay within.
Nearly a day after we arrived, we were at last met by our host. I must admit, despite my wariness at the whole situation, the man's obvious wealth belied a quiet humility, and this demeanor put us at ease almost immediately.

After a brief introduction, he led us from the main building through a series of well-lit corridors. At length, we reached an extraordinarily large room with a glass ceiling, wherein grew several large trees. The air was humid, filled with the scent of rich soil and dense vegetation, and on the ground, rocky outcrops were interspersed with patches of dense brush and small clearings. High above, the tree canopy formed a protective layer, through which shafts of sunlight shone down. It was an impressively authentic replication of a wild, untamed forest--all housed indoors.


Then, with barely a warning, our host approached a lever along the nearby wall, and pulled it. Across the vast room, we saw a section of the wall rise upward, unveiling a darkened, smaller room within. Seconds later, a silhouette separated itself from the darkness, and I heard a gasp from one of my team--as an unexpectedly large creature emerged, covered reddish fur and walking on all fours, but with a face possessing such human-like features that some primitive part of my own brain recoiled at the incongruity. 

The beast regarded us calmly, and though it made no further move toward us, I glanced with what I admit to be nervousness at our host. Slowly, he turned his gaze from the creature to us. A slight smile crossed his lips, and I saw a gleam of admiration in his eyes.


"Behold," he said, "the manticore."

Anatomy and Biology

In the days that followed, my team and I were granted access not only to the direct study of these creatures in as natural of a habitat as possible, but to meticulous records detailing breeding, morphology, growth patterns, and more recently, even genomic data--records that our hosts’ ancestors had initiated several centuries prior.
Our host claimed that it wasn’t only monetary wealth he had inherited--but knowledge, and the role of steward of this critically endangered species.
But my role, and that of my team, is not simply to archive data. Though this investigation began with a significant advantage provided by our gracious host, we still had a job to do.
And we began with the most pressing question. How did this creature, so unlike any we had yet seen, come to be?

Origin

Typically, my team and I deliberate for some time as to how to taxonomically classify a new species. But in this case, our host informed us that the creature's caretakers and scientists had already done so. It has been placed in the primate order, under the family cercopithecidae, or old world monkeys. Specifically, it had been designated manticorus imperator. In truth, naming conventions hold little interest to me, and the taxonomic placement seemed adequate, especially given this creature's similarity, in many ways, to an extinct member of the same family: the predatory primate Dinopithecus--a creature whose own name means "terrible ape."
Of course, extensive testing would be necessary to determine how closely related these primates may be, and indeed, given the extent of imperator's unique morphology, a close relation may be unlikely.
Furthermore, historically, the records provided by our host were less concerned with the rehabilitation of wild populations and more with preserving the pure genetics of the one in captivity--apparently, the species was already endangered as long ago as the 15th century.
Finally, the abundance and geographic range of the manticorus imperator population prior to this time is unknown--ancient reports of the creature place it in India and modern Iran, though like many other large primates, it may have originated in Africa and spread--or been brought--to other locations.
But of course, no discussion of this creature’s origin would be complete without acknowledging the development of its unusual morphology.

Morphology

As previously described, illustrations of the manticore often depict juxtaposed anatomical features. But the first time we saw the creature for ourselves, we were struck not only by its sheer size, but the congruity of its features.
This should not have been a surprise, of course--with the notable exception of the platypus, nature seldom produces features that seem out of place.
Its simian features were at once obvious--though, at an average of four feet tall at the shoulder and a weight of nearly 180 pounds, it was far more robust and muscular than others in its order.
In short, it’s little wonder why this creature’s body was thought to be that of a lion--it certainly reflected a similar underlying power.
And as the ancient descriptions claimed, the fur that covers its body is light reddish-to-orange in coloration, with the cape being a darker red.
The creature’s enhanced musculature and intimidating dentition, a point to which we’ll return, are clearly designed for a predatory lifestyle. Like baboons, and despite its bulk, it is agile, able to leap into low branches and across large stretches of ground.
The comparison to modern baboons is especially apt, as they also have been known to hunt, even to take down and consume small antelopes. 
Still, they are not categorized as predators--with the possible exception of the tarsier, no modern primate is.
But as we discovered, the manticore certainly lives up… to its name.
The manticore’s hunting pattern is a sight to behold. Given the size of the enclosure wherein the handful of specimens were kept, we were able to observe numerous… meals, so to speak. To be clear, this species is omnivorous and opportunistic, feeding on mixtures of small creatures like birds and rodents, as well as fruit and other plants.
But they do appear to exhibit an affinity for… larger game.
Upon picking up the trail of its prey, the manticore will engage in stalking behavior, usually from low-lying branches or denser vegetation. Occasionally, it may lie in wait for its prey to draw near, before pouncing with ferocious power and speed.
It is little wonder why humans and other primates deeply feared this creature. And even if the manticore is forced to move to a defensive stance, it is no less formidable.
This is primarily due to its primary form of defense—its tail. And in this regard, the ancient accounts are partially correct--the distal end does exhibit an array of sharp spines, or quills, but of course, they cannot be "launched" at any distance.
These spines bear a remarkable resemblance to those of certain New World species of porcupines, being modified hairs coated in thick plates of keratin, and embedded in the skin musculature.
The number of spines appears to vary slightly between individuals, but average roughly two dozen, each itself averaging 8-12 inches in length.
These spines normally lay flat, but when danger is sensed, stand up, like the hair on the back of one’s neck. Dissected specimens indicate that this movement is accomplished by a grouping of connective tissues and a piloerector muscle, which contracts and pulls the spine erect.
Upon impact with an object, as would be the case in a defensive strike, the quill is pushed back into the manticore’s flesh, severing the base of the quill and the supporting tissue--causing it to loosen and, ideally, become lodged in its victim.
But taken alone, these few spines may not have been enough to ward off whatever predators or competition this species faced in the past. And as described by the legends, samples taken from living specimens indicate that the manticore's quills are drenched in a highly specialized toxin--one painful and even deadly enough to deter almost any creature that dares to threaten it.


However, the spines themselves are not the source of this toxin. Instead, it is produced in specialized glands located strategically at the base of the manticore's tail. Interestingly, observations show that the manticore applies the toxin manually, seemingly as part of a daily grooming routine.
The actual process is precise--almost ritualistic--beginning with stimulation of the glands by the hands, and a meticulous spine-by-spine transfer that gives each one an even coating. As this process is repeated at regular intervals, the potency and readiness of this unique defense is continually maintained.
As for the toxin itself, analysis indicates that it is protein-based and composed of a series of highly potent peptides. In the victim, like other neurotoxins, these peptides appear to target and disrupt neural communication by binding and blocking acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions.
This blockade effectively prevents muscle contraction, leading to rapid paralysis in the affected organism.
And though we did not observe this directly, centuries of records kept by our host describe numerous deaths through accidental contact by the creatures’ handlers. In fact, the speed at which this toxin is likely to produce its painful and potentially deadly effects is extraordinary--for though the composition is similar to the conotoxin of cone snails, unique proteases found in the manticore's toxin appear to facilitate the neurotoxic peptide's penetration into the bloodstream. In short, the effects of this toxin on a human would likely occur in mere seconds.

Head

At this point, my valued reader, there is one major aspect of this creature’s anatomy that we haven’t discussed: its head. We’ll begin with the reports of its multiple rows of teeth, or, as Edward Topsell described, “a treble rowe of teeth beneath and above.”
Certainly, a mammal possessing such unusual dentition would be noteworthy--and though the truth is not so fantastic, it is a no-less-fascinating biological phenomenon. At this time, the only documented species with more than one row of teeth are non-mammalian--sharks, for example.
But sharks, and many other fish and reptile species, are also polyphyodonts--meaning that their teeth are shed and replaced throughout their lives.
Certain mammals, such as manatees, elephants, and kangaroos are also classified as polyphyodonts, though this is a slight misnomer. Instead of a life-long cycle, these mammals are genetically programmed to produce a certain number of sets of replacement teeth. As the old teeth are worn down, they are replaced in a kind of horizontal conveyor belt, where new teeth are moved along the jaw to the front, closing the gap.
In the manticore, however, we see a form of this “pseudo-polyphyodontism” that is unique for several reasons. First, the tooth replacement process occurs vertically rather than horizontally. Second, this tooth development occurs in a species exhibiting carnivorous tendencies, whereas most known examples occur in herbivores.
The key to this phenomenon appears to be the creature’s extended dental lamina, which contains the stem cell precursors necessary for producing new teeth. As functional teeth damage or fracture from wear, signaling pathways activate new tooth buds from the waiting tooth germs in the lamina tissue.
This phenomenon provides a distinct advantage for this species, though like other pseudo-polyphyodonts, the manticore’s ability to generate new teeth is limited--a full set may be replaced only up to four times throughout its 20-to-30-year lifespan. Ancient accounts likely mistook this sequential replacement system for multiple rows of teeth. And indeed, even in our own observations, the overlapping phases of tooth eruption and replacement did give the appearance of multiple rows.
But of course, adaptations like these, along with its diet, require that the jaw undergo numerous adaptations as well.
Samples indicate that the ligaments supporting the manticore’s jaw are thicker and more resilient--an adaptation for handling the stress of a powerful bite. Along with this, we see hypertrophied masseter and temporalis muscles, providing the manticore with an exceptionally strong bite force.
Additionally, the mandible and maxilla themselves are unusually dense and proportionally thicker than one might expect in a primate. It appears that this is not only due to this species’ proclivity to meat, but also to facilitate the dental structures previously described.
And yet, this brings us to what is inarguably the most striking feature of manticorus imperator: its remarkably flat, eerily human-like face--one that deviates significantly from the typical muzzle structure seen in most primates.

This is due, in part, to the fact that the skull itself exhibits a reduced prognathism, or forward protrusion of the jaw and mouth, which allows for a more vertical face orientation and reflects the manticore’s reduced biological emphasis on the jaw's role in both foraging and defense.
The eyes, large and forward-facing, resemble human eyes not only in their positioning but also in their shape and, notably, in their expressiveness.

In fact, this creature appears remarkably expressive overall--this certainly adds to this its uncanny appearance, but it also indicates that this lineage has developed complex social interaction. 

Further evidence for this hypothesis lies in the creature's sophisticated facial musculature, particularly surrounding the eyes and mouth, allowing for a range of expressions. This is unusual for a non-human primate, as it suggests a level of social complexity typically associated only with humans, and, I must admit, was something that caught me by surprise.
I will likely never forget not only the moment that I laid eyes on the creature, emerging from that small room, but when it laid its eyes on me. It was immediately clear that this creature was analyzing us, these strangers in its curated domain. The eyes of many primates are clearly intelligent, but this… this was something more. I saw emotion reflected in the movements of its muscles--microexpressions formed by an unsettlingly familiar level of cognition.
In the time spent with these creatures, usually on the other side of reinforced glass, I observed a range of expressions, from grimacing frustration to boredom to something eerily close to laughter. Combined with hand gestures, these expressions indicated intricate non-verbal communication between individuals, limited as it was by such a small sample size.
Much more study will be necessary to determine the extent of this creature’s true level of intelligence, and I certainly hope to be made aware when this occurs. I did observe, however, that the cranial structure itself is altered from a traditional primate skull to facilitate an expanded frontal cortex--a region of the brain associated with higher cognitive functions. Further skull adaptations include greater distance between the orbits, wider and more gracile zygomatic arches, and a far less pronounced brow ridge--all of which contribute to its human-like appearance.
Finally, there is the nose, which is, of course, highly unusual. It isn’t clear why this pronounced nasal structure exists in the species, though I suspect it has to do with its original geographic range, which may have included colder, more arid alpine environments. In this case, the air would need to have been warmed as it entered the nasal apertures, resulting in nasal passages that are both longer and narrower. However, without direct observation in the wild, this hypothesis will likely remain unconfirmed.

Ecology

After roughly 12 days, our time in that estate was drawing to a close. We had spent a great deal of it studying, observing, and from our host, learning what information he and his ancestors had gleaned over the centuries. Now, one question pressed above the others. What had become of the manticore? How had such a robust species, known well enough even into the 17th century, been driven to the brink of extinction?
The answer is simple, as it often is: humans.
In truth, the manticore population may never have been very large--the defensive adaptations of the tail, specifically, indicate fierce competition, possibly from other large primates. But the threat posed by manticorus imperator to any human population is significant.
As previously mentioned, even the name “manticore” means man-eater--Ctesias himself claimed that the creature even preferred to hunt humans, lying in wait, and taking down even up to 3 grown men at a time.
And given its possible relation to dinopithecus, a primate thought by some to have also regularly preyed on our ancestors, this scenario does not seem unreasonable.
As a result of their entirely reasonable fear, humans hunted the manticore vigorously, killing them with arrows shot from the backs of elephants. Ctesias also recounts attempts at domestication--wherein juveniles were captured, their tails and venom glands crushed with stones to reduce their threat.
Interestingly, the systematic extermination of other primate species has long-standing precedence--in Kenya, for example, a large butchering ground containing the bones of nearly 100 young, though still very large, baboons was found. Each one’s skull had been smashed by heavy weapons--likely wielded by the hands of hominids. 

Similar hunts occur with modern humans and baboons even today.
It is little wonder, then, that despite the manticore’s impressive arsenal, it would be no match for the ingenuity of humanity.
And yet, it is humanity that has kept the species alive--albeit barely.
The preservation of this lineage was the obvious pride of our host, and it was clear that he and his entire family regarded the manticore with a distinct reverence.
Now, for the first time, they had looked to outsiders for help--the captive population was dwindling, and at severe risk of genetic defects resulting from inbreeding. They hoped that Vita Nova’s advancements in this area would offer a solution, and with its characteristic discretion.
I promised to relay all of this to my superiors, as I do in each case.
What will become of these magnificent creatures is now out of my control. My hope is that their lineage can be re-established… My concern is that the methods my employer may utilize… is not what our host had in mind.

Scientific Name

Manticorus imperator

Conservation Status

Critically endangered